Max Weber: The Iron Cage of Capitalism

Max Weber on the iron cage of capitalism in "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1905):

The Puritan wanted to work in a calling; we are forced to do so. For when asceticism was carried out of monastic cells into everyday life, and began to dominate worldly morality, it did its part in building the tremendous cosmos of the modern economic order. This order is now bound to the technical and economic conditions of machine production which today determine the lives of all the individuals who are born into this mechanism, not only those directly concerned with economic acquisition, with irresistible force. Perhaps it will so determine them until the last ton of fossilised coal is burnt. In Baxter's view the care for external goods should only lie on the shoulders of the "saint like a light cloak, which can be thrown aside at any moment". But fate decreed that the cloak should become an iron cage.

Since asceticism undertook to remodel the world and to work out its ideals in the world, material goods have gained an increasing and finally an inexorable power over the lives of men as at no previous period in history. Today the spirit of religious asceticism – whether finally, who knows? – has escaped from the cage. But victorious capitalism, since it rests on mechanical foundations, needs its support no longer. The rosy blush of its laughing heir, the Enlightenment, seems also to be irretrievably fading, and the idea of duty in one's calling prowls about in our lives like the ghost of dead religious beliefs. Where the fulfillment of the calling cannot directly be related to the highest spiritual and cultural values, or when, on the other hand, it need not be felt simply as economic compulsion, the individual generally abandons the attempt to justify it at all. In the field of its highest development, in the United States, the pursuit of wealth, stripped of its religious and ethical meaning, tends to become associated with purely mundane passions, which often actually give it the character of sport.

No one knows who will live in this cage in the future, or whether at the end of this tremendous development entirely new prophets will arise, or there will be a great rebirth of old ideas and ideals, or, if neither, mechanised petrification, embellished with a sort of convulsive self-importance. For of the last stage of this cultural development, it might well be truly said: "Specialists without spirit, sensualists without heart; this nullity imagines that it has attained a level of civilisation never before achieved."

Ugadi: The Indian/Hindu New Year

Today is Chaitra Shuddha Pratipada – the first day of the year in the Indian/Hindu calendar. The festival is celebrated as Ugadi (yugAdi) in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and as Gudi Padwa (guDhI pADvA) in Maharashtra. This is

• the 5112nd year of the Kali Yuga.
• the 1932nd year of the Shalivahana Era.
• the year "Vikruti" (Samvatsara).
  

Happy new year! :-)

The Three Periods in India's History

Based on the economic stages of history, we can divide India's history into the following three periods:

1. 3000 BC – 1947 AD	Agricultural Age
2. 1947 – 1991	Semi-Industrial Age
3. 1991 –	Industrial Age

Industrial Age = Modern Age

India 1991: Economic Reforms, Liberalisation, Capitalism

When the Industrial Revolution (1775–1850) happened, India was under British rule (1757–1947). The British did not bother to industrialise India. Nor did they allow Indians to industrialise on their own. As a result, India could not industrialise, and was stuck in the Agricultural Age. In 1947, India finally overthrew the British and became independent. Now she was free to industrialise/modernise and enter the Industrial Age.

There were two industrial systems: capitalism and socialism. In capitalism, industries are owned by individuals and enterprises. In socialism, industries are owned by the government. Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister (1947–1964), chose socialism. With socialism, India's economy grew at about 3% per year. In other words, India industrialised/modernised at the rate of 3% per year. This went on for 40 years. Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi (1966–1984) and grandson Rajiv Gandhi (1984–1991) continued with socialism.

Then, in 1991, India became bankrupt. Things could not go on as before. Something had to change. P V Narasimha Rao, the then Prime Minister, did the unthinkable. He changed India's industrial system from socialism to capitalism. He dumped socialism and adopted capitalism. As a result, India's economy started growing at 6% per year – double the earlier rate. Later it started growing at 9% per year – triple the earlier rate. That is, after adopting capitalism in 1991, India's rate of industrialisation/modernisation has now tripled. India is now industrialising/modernising thrice as fast as she was doing during the period 1947–1991.

That is what is happening today. And that is the significance of 1991. People call it "economic reforms" or "liberalisation". In fact, the switch from socialism to capitalism was nothing short of a revolution*. As a milestone in modern India's history, 1991 is second in importance only to 1947.

*China had carried out its own revolution in 1978, in a much more decisive manner, with much more spectacular results.

India, Modernity, Washing Machines and Women

The NCAER's study on the Indian middle class has some interesting data on the ownership of consumer durables in India:

Consumer Durable	Ownership
Colour TV	14.6%
Refrigerator	13.4%
Scooter	7.9%
Washing machine	7.2%
Motorcycle	7.1%
Car/Jeep	0.3%

Now colour TVs, refrigerators and washing machines cost about the same. But the ownership of washing machines is about half that of colour TVs and refrigerators. It is comparable to the ownership of scooters and motorcycles, which cost about 5 times as much.

So the 'deficit' in the ownership of washing machines (compared to colour TVs and refrigerators) is about 7% of the population. This translates to about 1.5 crore families. That is, 15 million families can afford a washing machine, but haven't bought one.

What does this mean? It means 15 million Indian women wash clothes by hand – even though they don't have to. It means 15 million Indian women spend half their day washing clothes, from morning to afternoon, everyday – even though they don't have to.

What does this say about modernity in India?

Degree of Industrialisation: India and Other Countries

How do we measure to what extent a country is industrialised? There is no economic indicator called "degree of industrialisation". A rough substitute would be the percentage of the population that is employed in the industry and services sectors (as against agriculture). Taking this as a measure, here are some countries and their "degree of industrialisation":

Country	Degree of Industrialisation
India	48%
China	60%
America	99%
Britain	98%
Germany	97%
France	96%
Japan	95%
Russia	90%
Brazil	80%
Indonesia	57%

Data from CIA's "The World Factbook".

India's Major/Largest Cities

India has 8 cities with more than 50 lakh people:

Rank	City	Population*
1	Bombay	2.2 crore
2	Delhi	1.9 crore
3	Calcutta	1.6 crore
4	Madras	74 lakh
5	Bangalore	66 lakh
6	Hyderabad	64 lakh
7	Poona	55 lakh
8	Ahmedabad	54 lakh

These are India's major/largest cities. These 8 cities account for 50% of India's urban population.

*2010 estimates.

The Size of India's Middle Class

Question: How big is India's middle class?
Answer: 5% (Yes, only five percent)

2001: NCAER

Income Class	Monthly Family Income*	% of Total Population
Poor	< Rs 7,500	72%
Lower Class	Rs 7,500 – Rs 17,000	22%
Middle Class	Rs 17,000 – Rs 85,000	5%
Rich	> Rs 85,000	0.5%

2005: McKinsey

Income Class	Monthly Family Income*	% of Total Population
Poor	< Rs 7,500	54%
Lower Class	Rs 7,500 – Rs 17,000	41%
Middle Class	Rs 17,000 – Rs 42,000	4%
Upper Class	Rs 42,000 – Rs 85,000	1%
Rich	> Rs 85,000	0%

McKinsey also makes forecasts for the relative sizes of the different income classes for the years 2015 and 2025:

Income Class	2015	2025
Poor	35%	22%
Lower Class	43%	36%
Middle Class	19%	32%
Upper Class	1%	9%
Rich	1%	2%

So McKinsey's picture is roughly like this:

Year	Middle Class	Lower Class	Poor
2005	5%	40%	55%
2015	20%	45%	35%
2025	40%	35%	20%

• Middle class will increase from 5% to 40%.

• Poverty will go down from 55% to 20%.

• Lower class will hover around 40%.

*The original data gives the annual incomes. I have converted them to monthly incomes, and rounded them off.

Vishnuvardhan: Best/Top Movies

Vishnuvardhan, Kannada movie actor, passed away yesterday. He was 59.

He acted in 200 films in a career spanning 36 years, from Vamsha Vriksha (1972) to Apta Rakshaka (2008).

I am not an authority on VV's movies. Based on my limited viewing, these are his best/top movies and most memorable performances:

1. Bhootayyana Maga Ayyu (1974)
Gorur Ramaswami Iyengar's novel comes to the big screen. Lokesh is the zamindar Ayyu, but VV as the fiery villager Gulla steals the show.

2. Bandhana (1984)
A doctor (VV), his colleague (Suhasini) and her jealous husband (Jai Jagadish) make up the triangle in this hit movie of the 1980s.

3. Malaya Maruta (1986)
A poor boy becomes a famous classical singer, with the blessings of his deceased guru. An excellent score by Vijaybhaskar makes this a treat for music lovers.

4. Suprabhata (1988)
VV falls in love with a deaf-mute girl who turns out to be a rape victim. A sensitive love story, with a fine performance from Suhasini.

5. Muttina Haara (1990)
The story of a soldier: 1948 Pakistan war - injured - falls in love - marries - 1962 China war - captured - tortured - meets a hero's end. Moving, inspiring, patriotic.

6. Nishkarsha (1993)
A bunch of terrorists take control of a building and hold some civilians hostage. Enter the Anti Terrorist Squad and Major VV. Kannada cinema's first Hollywood-style action movie.

India: Cities, Towns, Villages

Here is a snapshot look at India's cities, towns and villages:

	Population Range	Total Number*	Share in India's Population
City	> 1,00,000	400	15%
Town	10,000 – 1,00,000	5,000	15%
Village	< 10,000	6,00,000	70%

Cities are usually district capitals, while towns are usually taluk capitals.

*Approximate

Christian Missionaries in India

Here is an example of the activities of Christian missionaries in India.

Alvin Toffler on the Modern World/Age

Alvin Toffler on the modern world/age in "The Third Wave" (1980):

Until now the human race has undergone two great waves of change, each one largely obliterating earlier cultures or civilisations and replacing them with ways of life inconceivable to those who came before. The First Wave of change – the agricultural revolution – took thousands of years to play itself out. The Second Wave – the rise of industrial civilisation – took a mere three hundred years.
(First chapter)

Some historians may take issue with the way this book divides civilisation into only three parts: a First Wave agricultural phase, a Second Wave industrial phase, and a Third Wave phase now beginning.
(Introduction)

A new civilisation is emerging in our lives, and blind men everywhere are trying to suppress it.
(First line of the book)

A Short Economic History of Modern India

Swaminathan Aiyar, in a brilliant article*, gives us a short economic history of modern India:

At last week's annual meeting of the World Bank and IMF, many speakers spoke of the need for governments to reduce controls and trade barriers and let entrepreneurs get on with the job. They also stressed the vital roles that governments did indeed need to perform: ensuring law and order, the enforcement of contracts, honest governance and the creation of basic infrastructure.

Dissenters will say this sounds suspiciously close to the formula of the British Raj. The result then was not prosperity but poverty and stagnation. Now that we are in our 50th anniversary year of independence, many people will ask: why did liberal economics prove an economic failure during the British Raj? And why should it be any more successful today?

Before the Industrial Revolution, India was the second biggest industrial power in the world (next only to China). When the British Raj ended in 1947, India was a poverty-stricken nation with minimal modern industry. Nationalist leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru blamed this decline on colonial exploitation. The British did not see it that way. They thought they had brought peace to a subcontinent that was earlier riven with constant war; had created political stability and rule of law where there had been neither; created an efficient and impartial civil service and judiciary; built one of the biggest railway networks in the world.

However, GDP growth in the first half of this century was barely 1% per year, just keeping pace with population growth. Food availability per capita declined. Indian artisans, who once dominated world industry, were decimated by the Industrial Revolution. And while in Europe the Industrial Revolution replaced handloom weavers with local textile mills, in India it replaced them largely with Lancashire textiles. Jawaharlal Nehru complained that this de-industrialisation halved India's urban population and forced once-prosperous industrial workers back to the land. He felt free trade was a British ploy to force its manufactures on India and prevent Indian industry from growing.

So after independence Nehru went for rapid industrialisation through import substitution and by taxing agriculture through adverse terms of trade. He felt agriculture lacked the potential to reduce poverty or increase employment and could only be a holding ground for surplus labour till industry provided additional jobs.

During the British Raj, India ran a persistent trade surplus. The ratio of India's exports to imports was 172.5% in 1840-69, 148% in 1870-1912, 133.4% in 1913-38. This persistent trade surplus, averaging 1.5% of GDP, was used to transfer wealth to Britain. So Nehru viewed export-orientation as a tool of colonial exploitation. He switched the emphasis from exports to import substitution. He viewed technical education as vital for industrialisation, but viewed primary education as less important and so did less for literacy than East Asian countries.

This strategy was initially hailed as a success. GDP growth rose to 3.5% per year, almost thrice the rate achieved in the last 50 years of the British Raj. Planning was high fashion at the time and Indian planning was at the very forefront of development economics. Only much later did East Asian countries demonstrate that 3.5% growth was slow, not fast, and that a different strategy – emphasising exports, agriculture and primary education and entrepreneurship – could produce much better results.

Nehru's biggest mistake related to agriculture. He failed to see, as Korea and Taiwan did, that with enough public investment and new technology, agriculture could be a dynamic sector that raised the living standards of the masses. The industrial sector was much too small to create much income or employment and so taxing agriculture to finance industrialisation did not reduce poverty in India during Nehru's rule or the Garibi Hatao phase of Indira Gandhi. It started declining only from the mid-1970s onwards, when the spread of the green revolution finally lowered real food prices and raised real rural wages. Higher rural incomes provided a firmer basis for rapid industrial growth than Nehru's earlier import substitution.

Nehru failed to see that the really big blow India suffered under the British was not in industry but agriculture. Ashok Desai estimates that grain yields in 1947 were one third of those in Mughal times. In the first half of this century, food production rose by only 0.5% per year, half the rate of population growth. This, not de-industrialisation, was the main cause of poverty in a country which was 85% rural.

The whole de-industrialisation thesis was flawed. Certainly the artisans of old suffered, but under the Raj a new breed of modern Indian entrepreneurs came up. The share of industry in India's GDP rose from 3.8 percent in 1913 to 7.5% by 1947 and the share of manufactures in India's exports rose from 22.4% in 1913 to 30% in the late 1930s. Modern industry employed fewer persons than the old artisan industry, but its output was more competitive.

Nehru's anti-export bias was mistaken. The British may have used trade exploitatively, but it had enormous possibilities with the end of empire. The East Asians saw this, but were regarded with contempt by Nehru as US puppets. They had the last laugh.

Let us return to where we started. Why did liberal economics and good governance not lead to prosperity during the British Raj? The main reasons are:

• The British sadly neglected agriculture and rural infrastructure, far more so than industry.
• The British Raj was racist, favouring British entrepreneurs and goods over Indian ones. This racism was probably important that the alleged lack of tariff encouragement to Indian manufacturers.
• The British sadly neglected primary education and literacy. By contrast, East Asian countries had high levels of literacy by 1950.
• The British used India's trade surpluses to remit capital to the UK instead of investing it in India's growth.
  

Today, all these conditions have changed. We now have a government that, however imperfectly, understands the importance of agriculture and rural development. It aims at improving the fortunes of Indians, not Englishmen. It has, imperfectly, improved primary education. In place of the colonial capital drain, there is now a large capital inflow that helps develop the economy. In these circumstances, a liberal economy and good governance can produce good results.

*"De-industrialisation Thesis Was Flawed", The Times of India (29 September 1996)

Technology, Economy, Politics, Culture

Some points about the T-E-P-C concept mentioned in the previous post:

1. The four basic aspects of society are technology, economy, politics and culture. There are other aspects of society, but these are the most important.

2. These four aspects are not independent. They are inter-dependent. That is, each of the four aspects influences the other three.

3. The four aspects are not equal in the degree to which they influence the other aspects. Some aspects are "stronger" than others.
Example: Both X and Y influence each other. But X influences Y more than Y influences X. Then X is said to be stronger than Y.

4. The four aspects can be arranged in the ascending order of their strength (or importance/influence):
a) Technology
b) Economy
c) Politics
d) Culture
(Thus we have the T-E-P-C abbreviation)

5. The higher order aspects (culture and politics) influence or determine the lower order aspects (economy and technology) – normally.

6. But sometimes there can be a major change in a lower order aspect. Then the direction of influence is reversed. That is, it becomes possible for the lower order aspects to influence or determine the higher order aspects .
(The "fundamental change" discussed in the previous post)

7. Such a major change in the lower order aspects has happened only twice in human history:
a) The invention of agriculture (c10,000 BC)
b) The Industrial Revolution (c1800 AD)

8. On both these occasions, the initial changes were in technology and the economy. But they led to changes in politics and culture as well.

9. T-E-P-C is different for:
a) Different civilisations (ex: India vs China vs America)
b) Different Ages (ex: Agricultural Age vs Industrial Age)

10. Between two civilisations (belonging to the same Age), the differences between each of the four aspects are not of the same magnitude. The four aspects can be arranged in the ascending order of the magnitude of their difference between two civilisations (belonging to the same Age):
a) Technology
b) Economy
c) Politics
d) Culture
(Again we have the T-E-P-C abbreviation)

11. That is, between two civilisations (belonging to the same Age), differences in technology are nil to slight, in economy and politics are slight to significant, and in culture are significant to maximum.

Definitions:
1. Technology = how man makes and does things.
2. Economy = how man produces goods (and services), and distributes them.
3. Politics = how man makes collective decisions.
4. Culture = how man lives, i.e., his way of life – his customs, habits, beliefs, practices, values, norms, systems and institutions.

Modernity: The Modern or Industrial Age

To understand modernity correctly, we must understand the implications of the Industrial Revolution (1775-1850):

1. The Industrial Revolution, which took place in 18th century England, gave birth to machines and factories (modern industry).

2. The Industrial Revolution was not merely a technological, or economic, change. It brought about political, and cultural, changes as well. Indeed, it changed society itself.

3. The Industrial Revolution was a fundamental change in how man produces goods, or satisfies his wants. The last time such a fundamental change occurred was when agriculture was invented – around 10,000 BC (12,000 years ago).

4. Whenever there is such a fundamental change in how man produces goods, it is not just technology or economy that changes, but also politics and culture. Indeed, society itself changes.

5. The Industrial Revolution was such a change. (That's why it's called "Revolution")

6. The Industrial Revolution marked the end of the Agricultural Age, which lasted for 12,000 years, and the beginning of a new Age in the history of mankind: the Industrial Age.

7. Each Age is defined by its own technology, economy, politics and culture (T-E-P-C) – in the broadest sense. Just as the Agricultural Age had a certain T-E-P-C, similarly the Industrial Age also has its own T-E-P-C.

8. The Industrial Revolution may have occurred first in the West, but it was not a Western development. It was a human development. That is, it concerns the whole of mankind, not just Europe.

9. Just as agriculture began first in Sumeria (around 10,000 BC) and then spread to other ancient civilisations (Egypt, India, China), similarly, modern industry began first in Europe and then spread/is spreading to other civilisations (first to America and Japan, now to China and India).

10. In modern industry, production is more. That is, wealth created is more. So an industrial society has more wealth than a non-industrialised society. Wealth means economic strength. Thus an industrialised society is stronger than a non-industrialised society. Therefore we have to industrialise.

Notes:

1. The term 'modern industry' is used to distinguish it from the earlier 'cottage industry' where manufacturing was done by artisans and craftsmen in their homes and workshops, using simple tools.

6. The terms 'Agricultural' and 'Industrial' are used in a relative sense – to denote which sector dominates the economy (in value of total output) and society (in population employed).

8. Due to certain geographical and historical factors, the Industrial Revolution happened to take place first in Europe, that's all.

Turgot: The Idea of Economic Stages of History

Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1727-1781) was a French administrator and economist. He served as comptroller general of France from 1774 to 1776. In his work Plan of Two Discourses on Universal History (1750), he divided the history of the world into three (economic) stages:
1. Hunting
2. Pastoralism
3. Agriculture
(Remember - this was before the Industrial Revolution)

Later, Adam Smith made the idea famous in his Wealth of Nations (1776). He divided human history into four stages:
1. Age of hunters
2. Age of shepherds
3. Age of agriculture
4. Age of commerce
(This was also just before the Industrial Revolution)

In our own time, we divide history into these three stages:
1. Hunting-gathering (primitive)
2. Agricultural (traditional)
3. Industrial (modern)

Today this view of history is commonplace. The credit for originating the idea belongs to A R J Turgot.

Some thinkers like Alain Touraine, Daniel Bell and Alvin Toffler divide history (implicitly or explicitly) into these stages:
1. Agricultural
2. Industrial
3. Post-Industrial
Even they are children walking in Turgot's footsteps.

The Three Stages in the History of the World

Based on how man satisfies his needs, that is, based on how man produces goods, the history of the world can be divided into the following three stages:

1. Hunting-gathering (began 2,00,000 years ago)
2. Agricultural (began 12,000 years ago)
3. Industrial (began 200 years ago)

These stages can also be called, respectively:
1. Primitive
2. Traditional
3. Modern

The primitive stage of hunting-gathering corresponds to pre-history, while the traditional/agricultural and modern/industrial stages together correspond to history.

History is usually classified into three periods: ancient, medieval and modern. The periodisation, in the case of Europe and India, is like this:

Period	Europe	India
Ancient	Classical age of Greece and Rome (–500 AD)	The Hindu period (–712 AD)
Medieval	Christian age of the Catholic Church (500–1500 AD)	The Islamic period (712–1707 AD)
Modern	Secular/humanistic age after the Renaissance (1500 AD– )	The European period (1707 AD– )

So the 'Modern' period is different for different civilisations*. However, when speaking of the history of mankind as a whole, the Modern Age is the Industrial Age (and 'modernity' refers to industrial society). When did this Modern Age begin?

The Industrial Age began with the Industrial Revolution, which occurred from 1775 to 1850. However, most of the major developments happened between 1775 and 1800. Therefore, 1800 can be taken as a convenient year for the birth of the modern world.

Btw, the Ancient and Medieval periods together come under the Agricultural/ Traditional stage.

*The word 'modern' means 'present' or 'contemporary' (from Latin 'modo' = 'just now').

The Best Books about the Modern World

The best books to understand today's world:

Society, Technology, Economy
1. The Age of Revolution: 1789-1848 – Eric Hobsbawm (1962)*
2. The Third Wave – Alvin Toffler (1980)

Culture, Religion
1. The Clash of Civilisations – Samuel Huntington (1996)
2. The Lexus and the Olive Tree – Thomas Friedman (1999)

Politics
1. The End of History – Francis Fukuyama (1992)
2. The Future of Freedom – Fareed Zakaria (2003)

Based on my limited reading, these are the definitive books about the modern world.

*I have not yet read this book.

M Vishweshwarayya: Life and Achievements

M Vishweshwarayya (1860-1962) is the architect of modern Karnataka. A look at his life and achievements:

Early Life and Education (1860-1883)

• 15 September 1860 - Born in Muddenahalli village near Chikkaballapur, Karnataka.
• The initial 'M' stands for Mokshagundam - his family's native village in Andhra Pradesh.
• Second son of Srinivas Shastri, a Sanskrit scholar, and Venkatalakshmamma.
• Attended primary school at Muddenahalli, middle school at Chikkaballapur and high school at Bangalore.
• In Bangalore, supported himself by giving tuitions to children. Studied at night under streetlights. (No, this is not a cliche)
• Lost his father at the age of 15. First rank in the matriculation exam in Mysore state.
• Did his BA at Central College, Bangalore. First rank in Madras University.
• Studied Civil Engineering at Science College, Poona. (Today's College of Engineering Pune - COEP)

Engineer (1884-1912)

• 1884 - Joined the PWD of Bombay Presidency as Assistant Engineer.
• Built automatic floodgates for Khadakvasla reservoir, near Poona.
• Built a system to supply drinking water at Aden, Egypt.
• 1906 - Awarded the "Kaiser-i-Hind" by the British government.
• 1908 - Resigned from the PWD. In spite of his many achievements he was not made Chief Engineer. The post was reserved for whites/Englishmen.
• At the request of the Nizam of Hyderabad, built dams for Moosi and Iyasi rivers near Hyderabad, to protect the city from floods.
• 1909 - Became Chief Engineer of Mysore state, then ruled by Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV (1902-40).

Diwan of Mysore (1912-1918)

• 1913 - Founded the Mysore Bank (today's State Bank of Mysore). The British did not want India to industrialise. Indian entrepreneurs could not get capital to set up industries. So MV founded the Mysore Bank.
• 1916 - Founded the Mysore University. Mysore's higher education broke free of the British-run Madras University.
• 1916 - Founded the Government Soap Factory at Mysore. Today the Karnataka Soaps and Detergents Ltd (KSDL) - maker of the world-famous Mysore Sandal Soap.
• 1917 - Founded the Government Engineering College at Bangalore. Today the University Vishweshwarayya College of Engineering (UVCE).
• Gave great importance to women's education. 1917 - Upgraded the Maharani's College at Mysore to a degree college.
• Revived the Mysore Iron and Steel Works (MISW) at Bhadravati. Today the Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Plant (VISL).
  
• Built the Krishnaraja Sagar dam (1911-31) on the Kaveri river near Mysore.
• Started the Sharavati Hydro-Electric Project at Jog Falls near Shimoga.
• Built the Bangalore-Mysore railroad.
• Built the Bhatkal harbour.
• Started the civil service exams in Mysore state.
• 1915 - Awarded the Knight Commander of the Indian Empire (KCIE) by the British government.

Retirement (1918-1962)

• 1940 - Persuaded industrialist Walchand Hirachand to found the Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) at Bangalore.
• 1943 - Founded the Sri Jayachamarajendra Polytechnic Institute with his earnings from MISW.
• Consulting engineer for Karachi, Bombay, Nashik, Poona, Belgaum, Dharwad, Indore and Gwalior - mainly for water supply projects.
• 1955 - Awarded the Bharat Ratna by the Indian government.
• 14 April 1962 - Died at the age of 101.

Source: "Sir M Vishweshwarayya" by Ananthram (Student Book House, Mangalore).

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution refers to a series of technological advancements in 18th century England:

Steam Engine
1776 - Separate condenser (James Watt)
1784 - Reciprocating to rotary motion (James Watt)
Iron Making
1784 - Puddling and rolling (Henry Cort)
Textile Industry
1765 - Spinning jenny (James Hargreaves)
1769 - Water frame (Richard Arkwright)
1779 - Spinning mule (Samuel Crompton)
1787 - Power loom (Edmund Cartwright)
Railways
1825 - Stockton-Darlington railway
1829 - Liverpool-Manchester railway

The Industrial Revolution spread from Britain to Europe and then to other countries. Industrialisation of different countries:

1775-1850  – Britain
1815-1870  – West Europe (Belgium, France, Germany)
1840-1900 – United States
1890-1915  – Japan

In a sense, the Industrial Revolution is still going on. 'Waves' of the Industrial Revolution:

1. First Wave (1775-1850)
a) Steam engine
b) Iron making
c) Textile industry
d) Railways

2. Second Wave (1830-1915)
a) Electricity
b) Internal combustion engine
c) Synthetic materials

3. Third Wave (1900-today)
a) Nuclear energy
b) Electronics
c) Computers

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica